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12 pages, 4470 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Surface Modification on the Properties of Buckwheat Husk—High-Density Polyethylene Biocomposites

by Roberto C. Vázquez-Fletes, Vahid Sadeghi, Rubén González-Núñez and Denis Rodrigue

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(10), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7100429 - 12 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1445

Abstract

This study focuses on the production and characterization of biocomposites based on a thermoplastic polymer (high-density polyethylene, HDPE) and a biosourced filler (buckwheat husk, BHS) to develop more sustainable composites. Compounding was performed via twin-screw extrusion with three different types of BHS. In [...] Read more.

This study focuses on the production and characterization of biocomposites based on a thermoplastic polymer (high-density polyethylene, HDPE) and a biosourced filler (buckwheat husk, BHS) to develop more sustainable composites. Compounding was performed via twin-screw extrusion with three different types of BHS. In the first series, untreated BHS was directly mixed with the polymer matrix, while the second series used mercerized BHS and the third series used pretreated BHS with a coupling agent (polyethylene grafted with maleic anhydride, MAPE) in solution. The samples were prepared at different concentrations (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 wt.% of BHS) to compare with the neat matrix (0%). All the samples were finally produced by compression molding and then cut to get the specimens for characterization. The latter included morphological (scanning electron microscopy), physical (density and hardness) and mechanical (tension, flexural and impact strength) properties. Based on the results obtained, it was observed that most of the mechanical and physical properties were improved, especially when the BHS was pretreated in solution before its introduction into the polymer matrix. The results showed that 30 wt.% of BHS in HDPE was the optimum for most of the properties investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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15 pages, 4331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact Resistant Flax Fiber Fabrics Using Shear Thickening Fluid

by Joseph Fehrenbach, Eric Hall, Luke Gibbon, Tanner Smith, Ali Amiri and Chad Ulven

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7010031 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

Shear thickening fluids (STFs) have been shown to improve the effectiveness of fabrics used in soft body armor applications. They are used to increase the puncture and ballistic impact resistance of Kevlar^® fabrics. However, the effect of using STFs with natural fabrics [...] Read more.

Shear thickening fluids (STFs) have been shown to improve the effectiveness of fabrics used in soft body armor applications. They are used to increase the puncture and ballistic impact resistance of Kevlar^® fabrics. However, the effect of using STFs with natural fabrics such as flax appears to have never been studied. Similarly, the hybridization of different fabric types impregnated with STF has also only undergone limited study. The rheology of STFs at varying concentrations of nanosilica dispersed in polyethylene glycol (PEG) was studied at different temperatures. It was found that the STFs behave as a non-Newtonian fluid in response to changes in shear rate. In this study the effectiveness on the puncture and ballistic impact resistance of impregnating flax fabric with STF at concentrations of 30%, 50%, and 70% w/w of nanosilica in PEG was investigated. The effect of hybridization of flax and Kevlar^® fabrics impregnated with STF was also investigated. The puncture resistance of both flax fabrics treated with STFs and hybrids treated with STFs was found to increase significantly and can be controlled by STF concentration. The ballistic impact resistance was also found to increase in the hybrid samples when STF concentration was at least 50%. The flax treated with STFs showed either a decrease in specific energy absorption per layer for the lower STF concentration, or a very small increase at 70% STF concentration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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16 pages, 12379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Copper-Based Fillers on Structural and Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid Composites

by Elena Evgenyevna Mastalygina, Anatoly Aleksandrovich Olkhov, Nikolay Vladimirovich Vorontsov, Nikolay Vitalievich Kiselev, Timur Bakhtierovich Khaidarov, Bekzod Bakhtierovich Khaydarov, Evgeniy Aleksandrovich Kolesnikov and Igor Nikolaevich Burmistrov

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(12), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6120386 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2146

Abstract

The importance of promising composites in modern materials science is constantly increasing. The use of various fillers or additives is associated with their influence not only on the defining properties of the composite, but also on physical and mechanical characteristics of the material. [...] Read more.

The importance of promising composites in modern materials science is constantly increasing. The use of various fillers or additives is associated with their influence not only on the defining properties of the composite, but also on physical and mechanical characteristics of the material. In this case, the distribution of the additive and its wetting with a polymer play an important role. The problem highlighted in this article is the influence of different copper-containing fillers (copper (II) sulphate powder, micro-sized copper (II) oxide powder, and nano-structured copper (II) oxide-based hollow microspheres) on the technological and physical–mechanical properties of the composites based on polylactic acid (PLA). The hollow microspheres of copper (II) oxide have been obtained by ultrasonic spray atomization via pyrolysis of copper (II) nitrate. The structure of the copper-based additives has been studied using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and static light scattering. For the PLA-composites, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, stress-strain properties testing, and density analysis have been performed. The plasticizing effect of polycaprolactone and polyethylene glycol has been studied for the highly filled PLA/CuSO₄ composite. The samples of PLA with over 2 wt.% of CuO microspheres have a full volume-filling and percolation structure of the additive’s particles. Due to the regular spherical shape of the particles and a lower specific volume, CuO hollow microspheres are uniformly distributed in the PLA matrix acting as a structuring and reinforcing modifier. Differential scanning analysis showed heterogeneous crystallization on CuO particles with an increase in the degree of crystallinity and the melting point of the polymer. It has been shown that the pre-masterbatching technology and adding plasticizers to obtain PLA composites contribute minimizing defects and enhance mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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15 pages, 4466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physico-Chemical, Rheological, and Viscoelastic Properties of Starch Bio-Based Materials

by Mohamed Ragoubi, Caroline Terrié and Nathalie Leblanc

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(12), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6120375 - 6 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1641

Abstract

This study describes the elaboration and characterization of plasticized starch composites based on lignocellulosic fibers. The transformation of native to plasticized starch (TPS) and the preparation of TPS blends were performed with a new lab-scale mixer based on an original concept. Firstly, the [...] Read more.

This study describes the elaboration and characterization of plasticized starch composites based on lignocellulosic fibers. The transformation of native to plasticized starch (TPS) and the preparation of TPS blends were performed with a new lab-scale mixer based on an original concept. Firstly, the morphology and chemical composition of flax shives were analyzed to better understand the intrinsic properties of these natural fillers. Then, the impact of the processing parameters (temperature, speed screw) on the quality and the structural properties of plasticized starch were examined by SEM and DRX. After that, we focused on the elaboration of various formulations based on plasticized starch matrix by varying TPS formulation and filler content (from 10 to 30%). The viscoelastic and rheological properties of TPS/flax blends have been analyzed by TGA, SEM, and DMTA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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15 pages, 968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Biocomposite Films of Chitosan/Natural Active Compounds for Shelf Life Extension of Fresh Poultry Meat

by João Ricardo Afonso Pires, Karen Miranda Almeida, Ana Sofia Augusto, Érica Torrido Vieira, Ana Luísa Fernando and Victor Gomes Lauriano Souza

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(11), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6110342 - 5 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

Active packaging based on chitosan (Ch) incorporated with six different natural hydro-alcoholic extracts (HAE) (rosemary, green tea, black tea, ginger, kenaf, and sage) were developed and tested to extend the shelf life of fresh poultry meat. The quality of the meat packaged was [...] Read more.

Active packaging based on chitosan (Ch) incorporated with six different natural hydro-alcoholic extracts (HAE) (rosemary, green tea, black tea, ginger, kenaf, and sage) were developed and tested to extend the shelf life of fresh poultry meat. The quality of the meat packaged was assessed through physical-chemical and microbiological characterization over 15 days of refrigerated storage. In vitro antimicrobial activity of pure extracts and films against Gram-positive (B. cereus) and Gram-negative (S. enterica) foodborne bacteria was also addressed. Pure extracts and the films developed showed antimicrobial activity by the diffusion agar method only against the Gram-positive bacteria. Microbial analysis of the meat wrapped with films incorporated with HAE showed a reduction of 3.1–4.5 log CFU/g and 2.5–4.0 log CFU/g on the total viable microorganisms and total coliforms, respectively. Ch + Kenaf and Ch + Sage films presented the highest antimicrobial activity. Regarding the oxidation degradation, as expected, TBARS values increased for all samples over time. However, the meat wrapped in the biocomposites, except for CH + Sage, presented lower secondary oxidation metabolites (reduction of 75–93%) in the content of malonaldehyde. This protection was superior for the meat wrapped with Ch + Rosemary. Active film also showed promising results by retarding the discoloration process and the increase of pH over time. Thus, the biocomposites produced can pose as an alternative technology to enhance the shelf life of fresh poultry meat and maintain its quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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14 pages, 4447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Based Epoxies: Mechanical Characterization and Their Applicability in the Development of Eco-Friendly Composites

by Nithesh Naik, B. Shivamurthy, B. H. S. Thimmappa, Zhanhu Guo and Ritesh Bhat

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(10), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6100294 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3678

Abstract

The combination of awareness of harmful industrial processes, environmental concerns, and depleting petroleum-based resources has spurred research in developing sustainable materials from renewable sources. Natural bio-based polymers have replaced synthetic polymers because of growing concern about environmental sustainability. As a result of heating [...] Read more.

The combination of awareness of harmful industrial processes, environmental concerns, and depleting petroleum-based resources has spurred research in developing sustainable materials from renewable sources. Natural bio-based polymers have replaced synthetic polymers because of growing concern about environmental sustainability. As a result of heating and distilling cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL), cardanol has emerged as a promising bio-retrieved component that can be used to make bio-based epoxy. The current work intends to investigate the mechanical properties of three kinds of cardanol-based bio-based epoxies in anticipation of widespread use. Vickers hardness, tensile and flexural strength are used to characterize mechanical properties. Additionally, a water absorption test is carried out to examine the weight gain properties of all the bio-based epoxy variants selected. FormuLITE 2 (FormuLITE 2501A + FormuLITE 2401B) exhibited the highest Vickers hardness, tensile and flexural strength among the three variants. Moreover, it exhibited a water absorption rate nearly equivalent to that of the conventional LY556/HY951, and thus, FormuLITE 2, the bio-based epoxy resin having 34% of bio-content blended with conventional epoxy, proves to be the best option out of the selected bio-based epoxies to be used further as the matrix material for the fabrication of biocomposites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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15 pages, 3058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lamination of Cast Hemp Paper with Bio-Based Plastics for Sustainable Packaging: Structure-Thermomechanical Properties Relationship and Biodegradation Studies

by Martins Nabels-Sneiders, Oskars Platnieks, Liga Grase and Sergejs Gaidukovs

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(9), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6090246 - 24 Aug 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5295

Abstract

Composite laminate recycling and waste disposal routes remain a burden to existing systems, requiring special treatment and separation. The inclusion of a plastic layer is important for several key properties that are required for food safety, which in turn has made these products [...] Read more.

Composite laminate recycling and waste disposal routes remain a burden to existing systems, requiring special treatment and separation. The inclusion of a plastic layer is important for several key properties that are required for food safety, which in turn has made these products exceptionally hard to substitute in food packaging. Yet, the continued use of non-degradable commodity plastics is unsustainable. In this research, we compare the four most promising biodegradable and bio-based plastics that could replace non-degradable plastics in laminates. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), polylactic acid (PLA), polybutylene succinate (PBS), and polybutylene succinate adipate (PBSA) were applied as a direct melt coating on porous cast hemp papers, and the final composite was compressed under three different loads: 0.5 MT, 1.5 MT, and 3.0 MT. To promote sustainable agriculture waste management, we opted to use cast paper made from ground hemp stalks. The formation of the composite structure was examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), while surface wetting on the paper side of the laminate was performed to understand structural changes induced by polymer impregnation into the paper layer. Mechanical performance properties were investigated with tensile and peel tests, and suitability for an extended range of temperatures was examined with dynamical mechanical analysis. An increase in compression pressure yielded up to a two-fold improvement in elastic modulus and tensile strength, while thermomechanical analysis revealed that the polymer’s transition into a viscoelastic state significantly affected the laminate’s storage modulus values. Biodegradation was performed in a controlled compost at 58 °C, resulting in full degradation within 40 to 80 days, with PLA and PHA laminates showing 40 and 50 days, respectively. Produced bioplastic laminates have a tremendous potential to replace polyolefin laminates in packaging applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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9 pages, 3314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Mechanical and Damping Properties of Nettle and Glass Fiber Reinforced Hybrid Composites

by Fazilay Abbès, Shihua Xu and Boussad Abbès

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(8), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6080238 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1882

Abstract

Growing environmental concerns are becoming significant challenges for large-scale applications in the automotive industry. Replacing and hybridizing glass fibers with natural fibers for non-structural applications is one effective way to address this challenge, while retaining the useful properties of both. This paper investigates [...] Read more.

Growing environmental concerns are becoming significant challenges for large-scale applications in the automotive industry. Replacing and hybridizing glass fibers with natural fibers for non-structural applications is one effective way to address this challenge, while retaining the useful properties of both. This paper investigates the mechanical and damping performance of four types of compression-molded materials: polyester matrix (reference), nettle (6% by weight), hybrid 1 (6% glass and 6% nettle by weight), and hybrid 2 (12% glass and 6% nettle by weight), with polyester matrix at an ambient temperature. The tensile tests using digital image correlation (DIC) showed that by adding 6% by weight nettle fibers for polymer matrix tensile modulus increases by 21%. For the hybrid 1 two-layer composite (6% by weight glass and 6% by weight nettle) and the hybrid 2 three-layer composite (12% by weight glass and 6% by weight nettle), it increases by 80% and 101%, respectively. On the other hand, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) has been used to assess the damping properties of the materials. The results showed that the loss factor increased by 6~14% for nettle reinforced composite, by 8~25% for hybrid 1 glass-nettle reinforced composite and by 2~15% for hybrid 2 glass-nettle reinforced composite for frequencies around 1.0~2.0 Hz and around 12 Hz corresponding to vehicle body and suspension natural frequencies, respectively. These results showed that glass fibers can be replaced by nettle fibers without compromising performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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17 pages, 6210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The 3D Printing of Biomass–Fungi Composites: Effects of Waiting Time after Mixture Preparation on Mechanical Properties, Rheological Properties, Minimum Extrusion Pressure, and Print Quality of the Prepared Mixture

by Al Mazedur Rahman, Abhinav Bhardwaj, Zhijian Pei, Chukwuzubelu Ufodike and Elena Castell-Perez

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(8), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6080237 - 12 Aug 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3429

Abstract

Biomass–fungi composites, an emerging class of sustainable materials, have potential applications in the construction and packaging industries. Molding-based manufacturing methods are typically employed to make products from these composites. Recently, a 3D printing-based method was developed for biomass–fungi composites to eliminate the need [...] Read more.

Biomass–fungi composites, an emerging class of sustainable materials, have potential applications in the construction and packaging industries. Molding-based manufacturing methods are typically employed to make products from these composites. Recently, a 3D printing-based method was developed for biomass–fungi composites to eliminate the need for making molds and to facilitate customized product design compared with manufacturing methods based on molding and hot-pressing. This method has six stages: biomass–fungi material preparation; primary colonization; mixture preparation; printing; secondary colonization; and drying. This paper reports a study about the effects of waiting time between the mixture preparation and 3D printing using biomass–fungi composites. As the waiting time increased from 0.25 to 3 h, the hardness and compressibility of the prepared mixture increased. As the waiting time increased from 0.25 to 8 h, the shear viscosity showed a decreasing trend; the yield stress of the prepared mixture increased at the beginning, then significantly decreased until the waiting time reached 3 h, and then did not significantly vary after 3 h. As the waiting time increased, the storage modulus and loss modulus decreased, the loss tangent delta increased, and the minimum required printing pressure for continuous extrusion during extrusion-based 3D printing increased. The print quality (in terms of layer-height shrinkage and filament-width uniformity) was reasonably good when the waiting time did not exceed 4.5 h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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19 pages, 3897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction and Identification of Effective Compounds from Natural Plants

by Hussein Habeeb Mustafa, Mohamed A. Ibrahim Elahmar, Rwoaa Tareq Hameed, Mohammed Alsultan, Layth Nesseef and Gerhard F. Swiegers

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(5), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6050149 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3051

Abstract

Most botanical species contain various types of bioactive compounds. This study focusses on the extraction and identification of bioactive compounds from Calicotome spinosa (Gorse), including flavones, α-linolenic acid and sugar. During the investigation of gorse flowers, leaves and bark, flavones were isolated from [...] Read more.

Most botanical species contain various types of bioactive compounds. This study focusses on the extraction and identification of bioactive compounds from Calicotome spinosa (Gorse), including flavones, α-linolenic acid and sugar. During the investigation of gorse flowers, leaves and bark, flavones were isolated from the bark and leaves. Calicotome spinosa showed a total isoflavonoid content of 1.5% from the bark of gorse and 1.3% from the leaves. To find the best conditions for flavone extraction, samples of Calicotome spinosa were extracted with different solvents (methanol, water and acetonitrile). Methanol was found to be a suitable solvent to selectively extract flavone. An unsaturated cis fatty acid (α-linolenic acid, C18:3 ∆9, 12, 15) was identified as the principal component of the triacylglycerol fraction from the flowers. Hydrolyses process conditions were used to study Gorse wood. The results indicated that the wood of gorse is not a suitable substance for making paper. The extracted bioactive compounds were analysed using NMR, GCMS, UV, TLC and Fibre Analyser techniques. The extracted compounds offered uses as antioxidants and agricultural chemicals in addition to other benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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12 pages, 2836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

All-Cellulose Composites Properties from Pre- and Post-Consumer Denim Wastes: Comparative Study

by Behnaz Baghaei, Belinda Johansson, Mikael Skrifvars and Nawar Kadi

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(5), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6050130 - 28 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2925

Abstract

This study reports the recycling of discarded denim textiles by the production of all-cellulose composites (ACCs). Discarded denim fabrics were shredded into fibers and then made into nonwoven fabrics by carding and needle punching. The produced nonwoven fabrics were converted to ACCs by [...] Read more.

This study reports the recycling of discarded denim textiles by the production of all-cellulose composites (ACCs). Discarded denim fabrics were shredded into fibers and then made into nonwoven fabrics by carding and needle punching. The produced nonwoven fabrics were converted to ACCs by one-step and two-step methods using an ionic liquid (IL), 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium acetate ([BMIM][Ac]). In this study, the effect of different ACC manufacturing methods, denim fabrics with different contents (a 100% cotton denim (CO) and a blend material (cotton, poly-ester and elastane (BCO)) and reusing of IL as a recycled cellulose solvent on the mechanical pro-perties of the formed ACCs were investigated. The ACCs were characterized according to their tensile and impact properties, as well as their void content. Microscopic analysis was carried out to study the morphology of a cross-section of the formed composites. The choice of the one-step method with recycled IL, pure IL or with a blend material (BCO) had no influence on the tensile properties. Instead, the result showed that the two-step method, with and without DMSO, will influence the E-modulus but not the tensile strength. Regarding the impact properties of the samples, the only factor likely to influence the impact energy was the one-step method with CO and BCO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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10 pages, 983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Manufacture of Natural Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composites with Coupling Agent in the Hardener

by Aitor Hernandez Michelena, John Summerscales, Jasper Graham-Jones and Wayne Hall

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6030097 - 18 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3276

Abstract

Lignocellulosic natural fibres are hydrophilic, while many matrix systems for composites are hydrophobic. The achievement of good mechanical properties for natural fibre-reinforced polymer (NFRP) matrix composites relies on good fibre-to-matrix bonding at the interface. The reinforcement is normally coated with an amphiphilic coupling [...] Read more.

Lignocellulosic natural fibres are hydrophilic, while many matrix systems for composites are hydrophobic. The achievement of good mechanical properties for natural fibre-reinforced polymer (NFRP) matrix composites relies on good fibre-to-matrix bonding at the interface. The reinforcement is normally coated with an amphiphilic coupling agent to promote a strong interface. A novel alternative approach is to dissolve the coupling agent in the hardener for the resin before creating the stoichiometric mix with the base epoxy resin. During composite manufacture, the hydrophilic (polar) end of the coupling agent migrates to surfaces (internal interfaces) and bonds to the fibres. The hydrophobic (non-polar) end of the coupling agent remains embedded in the mixed resin. Mechanical testing of composite samples showed that silane added directly to the matrix produced a NFRP composite with enhanced longitudinal properties. As pre-process fibre coating is no longer required, there are economic (shorter process times), environmental (elimination of contaminated solvents) and social (reduced worker exposure to chemical vapours) benefits arising from the new technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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15 pages, 8065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacturing of Biocomposites for Domestic Applications Using Bio-Based Filler Materials

by Shameem Akthar Shaik, Jens Schuster, Yousuf Pasha Shaik and Monis Kazmi

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6030078 - 2 Mar 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3920

Abstract

Filler materials are considered added value (volume) to composite materials. The addition of filler materials leads to altering the material characteristics. Nowadays, there has been a notable increase in bio-based materials in polymers and polymer composites. In this regard, agricultural wastes (low-cost renewable [...] Read more.

Filler materials are considered added value (volume) to composite materials. The addition of filler materials leads to altering the material characteristics. Nowadays, there has been a notable increase in bio-based materials in polymers and polymer composites. In this regard, agricultural wastes (low-cost renewable substrates) are used as filler content to prepare bioplastic composites, as they are available plenty in quantity and economical in price. Bioplastics composite samples are compounded by adding different amounts of eggshell powder and walnut shell powder in weight proportion to the plasticized PLA. The plasticization is realized with 5 wt.% of Epoxidized Soybean Oil. The prepared bioplastic granules are further processed by injection molding to dog bone-shaped samples subjected to different mechanical, thermal, and optical microscopy tests. Mechanical tests such as Tensile, Charpy Impact, and Flexural tests yielded decreased properties compared to virgin PLA. However, the properties of plasticized PLA–ES composite showed better results than plasticized PLA–WS composite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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13 pages, 4273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micromechanical Analysis of a Bio-Sandwich Application for Cylinder under Pressure

by Ghania Habbar, Abdelhakim Maizia, Abdelkader Hocine, João Ribeiro and Mohamed Houcine Dhaou

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6030069 - 23 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2512

Abstract

In recent years, there has been a growing replacement of synthetic fibers by natural ones, particularly by autochthonous materials. In the case of Algeria, the most abundant plant resources are the PALF (Pineapple leaf fiber), the date palm, and the Alfa fibers. In [...] Read more.

In recent years, there has been a growing replacement of synthetic fibers by natural ones, particularly by autochthonous materials. In the case of Algeria, the most abundant plant resources are the PALF (Pineapple leaf fiber), the date palm, and the Alfa fibers. In this work, the development and use of analytical and numerical methods are proposed to predict the mechanical properties of layers based on natural fibers that will be applied to manufacture skins of the sandwich cylinder. To achieve these predictions, four analytical models were used, namely the Halpin–Tsai, the Chamis, the Hashin vs. Rosen, and the ROM. The analytical results were compared with the numerical simulations and experimental data. The prediction of the elastic properties of the three fiber-based eco-composites showed an important dispersion in terms of stiffness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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10 pages, 2188 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

The Effect of Micromechanics Models: 2D and 3D Numerical Modeling for Predicting the Mechanical Properties of PP/Alfa Short Fiber Composites

by Fatima Ezzahra El-Abbassi, Mustapha Assarar, Siham Sakami, Hocine Kebir and Rezak Ayad

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(3), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6030066 - 23 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2511

Abstract

In the present work, we propose to confront two modeling techniques for predicting the macroscopic properties of short alfa fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites. The first modeling was a micromechanical analysis using the Mori-Tanaka, Self-consistent, Diluted, Voigt, Reuss, and Neerfeld-Hill models. The second modeling was [...] Read more.

In the present work, we propose to confront two modeling techniques for predicting the macroscopic properties of short alfa fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites. The first modeling was a micromechanical analysis using the Mori-Tanaka, Self-consistent, Diluted, Voigt, Reuss, and Neerfeld-Hill models. The second modeling was digital, using a specific finite element technique called the Projected Fiber (PF) approach. In the framework of this study, both 2D and 3D finite element analyses based on the PF approach were used. First, we proposed an inverse approach using these analytical and finite element models to predict the Young’s modulus of alfa fiber. Then, we compared the obtained results with the experiment values available in the literature. This comparison showed that the micromechanical models underestimated the alfa fiber’s Young’s modulus, while the finite element approach, PF, allowed for good framing of the experimental values. Moreover, we investigated the effect of fiber content on the predicted elastic properties of a polypropylene (PP) matrix reinforced with randomly distributed short alfa fibers. We noticed that the Diluted model was more accurate than the Mori-Tanaka and Self-consistent methods. As for the PF approach, its estimations were close to the experimental values. For example, the Young’s modulus for the PP/alfa with a 30 wt% of fiber content was underestimated with an error of 4.3%. It is shown that the 2D PF approach can provide calculated results with sufficient prediction accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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17 pages, 8156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation on a Preparation and Controlled Compaction Procedure for Waste-Fiber-Reinforced Raw Earth Samples

by Mazhar Hussain, Daniel Levacher, Léo Saouti, Nathalie Leblanc, Hafida Zmamou, Irini Djeran-Maigre and Andry Razakamanantsoa

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6010003 - 23 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3153

Abstract

Earth bricks are a traditional eco-friendly construction material. In this study, harbor-dredged sediments were used along with hemp shiv to develop a brick manufacturing procedure and compaction techniques to produce durable earth bricks for the valorization of waste hemp shiv and dredged sediments. [...] Read more.

Earth bricks are a traditional eco-friendly construction material. In this study, harbor-dredged sediments were used along with hemp shiv to develop a brick manufacturing procedure and compaction techniques to produce durable earth bricks for the valorization of waste hemp shiv and dredged sediments. Prismatic specimens of size 4 × 4 × 16 cm³ were manufactured with Dunkirk sediments after analyzing their suitability for earth bricks according to the French standard for flexural strength test to observe the indirect tensile strength and impact of the compaction techniques on the strength of bricks. Crude bricks were manufactured with varying hemp shiv content from 0% to 5% by mass. Compaction techniques such as dynamic compaction, static compaction, and tamping were applied. The effect of hemp shiv content and compaction techniques was evaluated with a flexural strength test and the distribution of fibers in bricks. Grain size analysis of sediments with French and Spanish standards shows that the sediments granulometry is suitable for earth bricks. The flexural strength testing of bricks indicates that bricks with saturated hemp shiv have higher flexural strength. Earth bricks have maximum strength with dynamic compaction with 1% hemp shiv, which satisfies the adobe bricks tensile strength requirements that vary from 0.012 to 0.025 MPa (NZS 4298, 1998; NORMA E.080 (2017). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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21 pages, 4810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Confinement in Extruded Nanocomposites Based on PCL and Mesoporous Silicas: Effect of Pore Sizes and Their Influence in Ultimate Mechanical Response

by Tamara M. Díez-Rodríguez, Enrique Blázquez-Blázquez, Nadine L. C. Antunes, Maria do Rosário Ribeiro, Ernesto Pérez and María L. Cerrada

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(12), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5120321 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2063

Abstract

In this study, nanocomposites based on polycaprolactone (PCL) and two types of mesoporous silicas, MCM-41 and SBA-15, were attained by melt extrusion. The effect of the silica incorporated within the PCL matrix was observed, firstly, in the morphological characteristics and degradation behavior of [...] Read more.

In this study, nanocomposites based on polycaprolactone (PCL) and two types of mesoporous silicas, MCM-41 and SBA-15, were attained by melt extrusion. The effect of the silica incorporated within the PCL matrix was observed, firstly, in the morphological characteristics and degradation behavior of the resultant composites. DSC experiments provided information on the existence of confinement in the PCL–SBA-15 materials through the appearance of an additional small endotherm, located at about 25–50 °C, and attributed to the melting of constrained crystallites. Displacement to a slightly lower temperature of this endothermic event was observed in the first heating run of PCL–MCM-41 composites, attributed to the inferior pore size in the MCM-41 particles. Thus, this indicates variations in the inclusion of PCL chains within these two mesostructures with different pore sizes. Real-time variable-temperature small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments with synchrotron radiation were crucial to confirm the presence of PCL within MCM-41 and SBA-15 pores. Accurate information was also deduced from these measurements regarding the influence of these two mesoporous MCM-41 and SBA-15 silicas on PCL long spacing. The differences found in these morphological and structural features were responsible for the ultimate mechanical response exhibited by the two sets of PCL nanocomposites, with a considerably higher increase of mechanical parameters in the SBA-15 family. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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16 pages, 4395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modified Polylactic Acid with Improved Impact Resistance in the Presence of a Thermoplastic Elastomer and the Influence of Fused Filament Fabrication on Its Physical Properties

by Samir Kasmi, Julien Cayuela, Bertrand De Backer, Eric Labbé and Sébastien Alix

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(9), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5090232 - 2 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2892

Abstract

The standard polylactic acid (PLA), as a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer, is commonly used in various industrial sectors, food, and medical fields. Unfortunately, it is characterized by a low elongation at break and low impact energy. In this study, a thermoplastic copolyester elastomer (TPCE) [...] Read more.

The standard polylactic acid (PLA), as a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer, is commonly used in various industrial sectors, food, and medical fields. Unfortunately, it is characterized by a low elongation at break and low impact energy. In this study, a thermoplastic copolyester elastomer (TPCE) was added at different weight ratios to improve the impact resistance of PLA. DSC analysis revealed that the two polymers were immiscible. A good balance of impact resistance and rigidity was reached using the formulation that was composed of 80% PLA and 20% TPCE, with an elongation at break of 155% compared to 4% for neat PLA. This new formulation was selected to be tested in a fused filament fabrication process. The influence of the nozzle and bed temperatures as printing parameters on the mechanical and thermal properties was explored. Better impact resistance was observed with the increase in the two thermal printing parameters. The crystallinity degree was not influenced by the variation in the nozzle temperature. However, it was increased at higher bed temperatures. Tomographic observations showed an anisotropic distribution of the porosity, where it was mostly present between the adjacent printed filaments and it was reduced with the increase in the nozzle and bed temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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15 pages, 4054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cellulose Nanocomposites of Cellulose Nanofibers and Molecular Coils

by Doug Henderson, Xin Zhang, Yimin Mao, Liangbing Hu, Robert M. Briber and Howard Wang

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(8), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5080200 - 30 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2610

Abstract

All-cellulose nanocomposites have been produced from cellulose nanofiber (CNF) suspensions and molecular coil solutions. Morphology and small-angle neutron scattering studies show the exfoliation and dispersion of CNFs in aqueous suspensions. Cellulose solutions in mixtures of ionic liquid and organic solvents were homogeneously mixed [...] Read more.

All-cellulose nanocomposites have been produced from cellulose nanofiber (CNF) suspensions and molecular coil solutions. Morphology and small-angle neutron scattering studies show the exfoliation and dispersion of CNFs in aqueous suspensions. Cellulose solutions in mixtures of ionic liquid and organic solvents were homogeneously mixed with CNF suspensions and subsequently dried to yield cellulose composites comprising CNF and amorphous cellulose over the entire composition range. Tensile tests show that stiffness and strength quantities of cellulose nanocomposites are the highest value at ca. 20% amorphous cellulose, while their fracture strain and toughness are the lowest. The inclusion of amorphous cellulose in cellulose nanocomposites alters their water uptake capacity, as measured in the ratio of the absorbed water to the cellulose mass, reducing from 37 for the neat CNF to less than 1 for a composite containing 35% or more amorphous cellulose. This study offers new insights into the design and production of all-cellulose nanocomposites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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12 pages, 3713 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Electron Beam Irradiation on 3D-Printed Biopolymers for Bone Tissue Engineering

by Conrad Mastalerz, Isabelle Vroman, Xavier Coqueret and Sébastien Alix

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(7), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5070182 - 10 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

Implanting scaffolds designed for the regeneration or the replacement of bone tissue damaged by diseases and injuries requires specially designed biomaterials that promote cell adhesion. However, the biodegradation rate of these scaffolds based on a single material is uniform. Four-dimensional printing appears to [...] Read more.

Implanting scaffolds designed for the regeneration or the replacement of bone tissue damaged by diseases and injuries requires specially designed biomaterials that promote cell adhesion. However, the biodegradation rate of these scaffolds based on a single material is uniform. Four-dimensional printing appears to be a promising method to control this aspect by changing the shape and/or the intrinsic properties of 3D-printed objects under the influence of external stimuli. Two main classes of biomaterials and biocomposites based on biopolyesters, namely poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(caprolactone) (PCL), were used in this study. Each of them was mixed with the inorganic filler hydroxyapatite (HA), which is a component of natural bone. The biocomposites and biomaterials were prepared using the melt extrusion process and then shaped using a 3D printer. Three-dimensional specimens showed a decrease in elongation at break and breaking strain due to variations of crystallinity. The crystallinity of irradiated samples increased slightly with irradiation and a new crystalline phase was observed in the case of the PLA. Four-dimensional printing of biomaterials using electron radiation shows great promise for bone tissue engineering based on biocomposite scaffolds and other medical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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11 pages, 1645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dielectric Properties of Wood-Polymer Composites: Effects of Frequency, Fiber Nature, Proportion, and Chemical Composition

by Imen Elloumi, Ahmed Koubaa, Wassim Kharrat, Chedly Bradai and Ahmed Elloumi

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(6), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5060141 - 24 May 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3491

Abstract

The characterization of the dielectric properties of wood–polymer composites (WPCs) is essential to understand their interaction with electromagnetic fields and evaluate their potential use for new applications. Thus, dielectric spectroscopy monitored the evolution of the dielectric properties of WPCs over a wide frequency [...] Read more.

The characterization of the dielectric properties of wood–polymer composites (WPCs) is essential to understand their interaction with electromagnetic fields and evaluate their potential use for new applications. Thus, dielectric spectroscopy monitored the evolution of the dielectric properties of WPCs over a wide frequency range of 1 MHz to 1 GHz. WPCs were prepared using mixtures of different proportions (40%, 50%, and 60%) of wood and bark fibers from various species, high-density polyethylene, and maleated polyethylene (3%) by a two-step process, extrusion and compression molding. Results indicated that wood fibers modify the resistivity of polyethylene at low frequencies but have no effect at microwave frequencies. Increasing the fiber content increases the composites’ dielectric properties. The fibers’ cellulose content explains the variation in the dielectric properties of composites reinforced with fibers from different wood species. Indeed, composites with high cellulose content show higher dielectric constants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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Review

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54 pages, 11604 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bio-Based Sustainable Polymers and Materials: From Processing to Biodegradation

by Obinna Okolie, Anuj Kumar, Christine Edwards, Linda A. Lawton, Adekunle Oke, Seonaidh McDonald, Vijay Kumar Thakur and James Njuguna

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(6), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7060213 - 24 May 2023

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 12662

Abstract

In the life cycle of a material, there will be either chemical or physical change due to varying environmental factors such as biological activity, light, heat, moisture, and chemical conditions. This process leads to polymer property change as pertains to functional deterioration because [...] Read more.

In the life cycle of a material, there will be either chemical or physical change due to varying environmental factors such as biological activity, light, heat, moisture, and chemical conditions. This process leads to polymer property change as pertains to functional deterioration because of the physical, biological, and chemical reactions that result in chemical transformations and bond scission and thus can be regarded as polymer degradation. Due to the present demand for sustainable polymers, bio-based polymers have been identified as a solution. There is therefore a need to compare the sustainability impacts of bio-based polymers, to maximize their use in functional use stage and still withhold the bio-degradation capability. This study focuses are poly (lactic acid) (PLA), Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), and polyamides (PA) as biopolymers of interest due to their potential in technological applications, stability, and biodegradability. For preparing bio-based value-added products, an appropriate selection of the fabrication or functional modification process is a very important factor for particular industrial or biomedical applications. The literature review indicates that in vivo is preferred to in vitro because it suits an overall study of the experiment’s effects on a living subject. This study will explore these features in detail. In particular, the review will cover processing and biodegradation pathways for each of the biopolymers. In addition, thermal degredation and photodegradation are covered, and future trends and conclusions are drawn. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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23 pages, 1240 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biochar Derived from Rice by-Products for Arsenic and Chromium Removal by Adsorption: A Review

by Stella Chatzimichailidou, Maria Xanthopoulou, Athanasia K. Tolkou and Ioannis A. Katsoyiannis

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7020059 - 4 Feb 2023

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4154

Abstract

Environmental pollution by arsenic (As) and hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) has been one of the most serious environmental problems in recent years around the world. Their presence in water is a result of both natural and anthropogenic activities, and poses serious risks to human [...] Read more.

Environmental pollution by arsenic (As) and hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) has been one of the most serious environmental problems in recent years around the world. Their presence in water is a result of both natural and anthropogenic activities, and poses serious risks to human health due to their high toxicity. Adsorption is a leading method used to remove arsenic and chromium, with biochar, a carbonaceous pyrolytic product made from various types of biomass, under low oxygen conditions, being one of the most common adsorbents due to its high surface area. Although biochar’s ability to immobilize and remove As and Cr(VI) is high, in order to increase the adsorption capacity and nutrient release potential of rice husk biochar, it is essential to select an appropriate pyrolysis and biochar modification technique. Physical or biological activation, steam/gas activation, UV irradiation, magnetization, alkali/acid treatment, and nano-modification are the main modification methods that will be discussed in this review. These modifications have led to multi-fold enhancement in adsorption/reduction capacity of As and Cr(VI), compared with plain biochar. This review provides a recent literature overview of the different biochar modification methods, as well as the factors that influence their capacity to successfully remove As and Cr(VI), along with regeneration potentials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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26 pages, 3598 KiB

Open AccessReview

Composites for Aqueous-Mediated Heterogeneously Catalyzed Degradation and Mineralization of Water Pollutants on TiO₂—A Review

by Madappa C. Maridevaru, Andrea Sorrentino, Belqasem Aljafari and Sambandam Anandan

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(11), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6110350 - 13 Nov 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

Wastewater incorporates a wide range of organic toxins, which have an adverse impact on the health of humans and other living things. In recent years, nanotechnology has promoted effective strategies for the photodegradation of industrial organic toxins and tenacious medical contaminants present in [...] Read more.

Wastewater incorporates a wide range of organic toxins, which have an adverse impact on the health of humans and other living things. In recent years, nanotechnology has promoted effective strategies for the photodegradation of industrial organic toxins and tenacious medical contaminants present in wastewater. Advanced composites based on photocatalysts can provide promising solutions for environmental cleanup without generating hazardous byproducts, because they promote the complete oxidation of contaminants. This survey article recaps the essentials of heterogeneous catalysis. Among the major players in heterogeneous catalysis, the metal oxide catalyst (e.g., TiO₂) groups cover photocatalysis of water toxins such as dyes, harmful organic molecules, and pharmaceutical contamination. The reasons for the proposal of TiO₂ as an active filler for heterogeneous photocatalysts include its superior surface area, significant activity for distinct oxidation and reduction reactions at low temperatures and pressures, effective interaction with metal supports, and chemical stability. Because of the aforementioned features, heterogeneous TiO₂ catalysts have a lot of potential in photocatalyst applications, and they can be improved even further by doping them with anionic or cationic dopants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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39 pages, 2687 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biobased Polymer Composites: A Review

by Anamol Pokharel, Kehinde James Falua, Amin Babaei-Ghazvini and Bishnu Acharya

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(9), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6090255 - 5 Sep 2022

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 10645

Abstract

Global environmental concerns, as well as the rapid depletion of non-renewable fossil fuel-based resources, have prompted research into the development of sustainable, environmentally friendly, and biodegradable materials for use in a variety of high-end applications. To mitigate the environmental setbacks caused by nonbiodegradable [...] Read more.

Global environmental concerns, as well as the rapid depletion of non-renewable fossil fuel-based resources, have prompted research into the development of sustainable, environmentally friendly, and biodegradable materials for use in a variety of high-end applications. To mitigate the environmental setbacks caused by nonbiodegradable materials, the development of biocomposites with improved mechanical performance is gradually gaining momentum. Natural fibers such as hemp, flax, and sisal have been well incorporated into biocomposite development. Nonetheless, the impact of functional moieties in their life cycle cannot be underestimated. In this review paper, a detailed discussion of the characteristics and components of biocomposites is presented. The treatment of composite materials (alkali and acetylation), as well as several manufacturing processes (hand layup, 3D printing, extrusion, etc.) and the applications of biocomposites, which are not limited to the aerospace industry, packaging, biomedicine, etc., are presented. Biocomposites with excellent durability, performance, serviceability, and reliability must be produced to expand their applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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12 pages, 2573 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polyhydroxyalkanoates Composites and Blends: Improved Properties and New Applications

by Atim J. Emaimo, Anatoly A. Olkhov, Alexey L. Iordanskii and Alexandre A. Vetcher

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(7), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6070206 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3268

Abstract

Composites of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have been proven to have enhanced properties in comparison to the pure form of these polyesters. Depending on what polymer or material is added to PHAs, the enhancement of different properties is observed. Since PHAs are explored for usage [...] Read more.

Composites of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have been proven to have enhanced properties in comparison to the pure form of these polyesters. Depending on what polymer or material is added to PHAs, the enhancement of different properties is observed. Since PHAs are explored for usage in diverse fields, understanding what blends affect what properties would guide further investigations towards application. This article reviews works that have been carried out with composite variation for application in several fields. Some properties of PHAs are highlighted and composite variation for their modulations are explored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

7 pages, 4253 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Bach-Type Polycondensation with the Aid of Hemoglobin as an Oxygen Supplier, and Synthetic/Bio-Composite

by Mai Ichikawa, Ryo Miyashita and Hiromasa Goto

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(8), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6080217 - 23 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1574

Abstract

We developed a new Bach-type reaction in the presence of oxy-hemoglobin as an oxygen supplier to synthesize polyazobenzene by traditional Bach reaction. The resultant product is a form of polymeric dye/hemoglobin copolymer. The advantage of this research is that it involves a new [...] Read more.

We developed a new Bach-type reaction in the presence of oxy-hemoglobin as an oxygen supplier to synthesize polyazobenzene by traditional Bach reaction. The resultant product is a form of polymeric dye/hemoglobin copolymer. The advantage of this research is that it involves a new reaction using the function of biomolecules, as well as the formation of plastics and biomaterials. The bio-based material may have good affinity with life forms, which may lead to applications in medical science. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biocomposites)

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