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13 pages, 2310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Host Factor Early Growth Response Gene (EGR-1) Regulates Vaccinia virus Infectivity during Infection of Starved Mouse Cells

by Leonardo C. De Oliveira, Bruno S. A. F. Brasil, Bethany Unger, Giliane S. Trindade, Jonatas S. Abrahão, Erna G. Kroon, Paula Traktman and Cláudio A. Bonjardim

Viruses 2018, 10(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10040140 - 21 Mar 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4595

Abstract

Evolution has equipped poxvirus genomes with the coding capacity for several virus-host interaction products which interfere with host cell gene expression and protein function, creating an adequate intracellular environment for a productive infection. We show here that Vaccinia virus (VACV) induces the expression [...] Read more.

Evolution has equipped poxvirus genomes with the coding capacity for several virus-host interaction products which interfere with host cell gene expression and protein function, creating an adequate intracellular environment for a productive infection. We show here that Vaccinia virus (VACV) induces the expression of the cellular transcription factor EGR-1 (early growth response-1) in Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts (MEFs) through the MEK (mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/ERK)/ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinases) pathway, from 3 to 12 h post infection (h.p.i.). By using starved egr-1 knockout (egr-1^−/−) MEFs, we demonstrate that VACV replication is reduced by ~1 log in this cell line. Although western blotting and electron microscopy analyses revealed no difference in VACV gene expression or morphogenesis, the specific infectivity of VACV propagated in egr-1^−/− MEFs was lower than virus propagated in wild type (WT) cells. This lower infectivity was due to decreased VACV DNA replication during the next cycle of infection. Taken together, these results revealed that EGR-1 appears to facilitate VACV replication in starved fibroblasts by affecting viral particles infectivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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9 pages, 3017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vaccinia virus in Feces and Urine of Wild Rodents from São Paulo State, Brazil

by Marina G. Peres, Thais S. Bacchiega, Camila M. Appolinário, Acácia F. Vicente, Mateus S. R. Mioni, Bruna L. D. Ribeiro, Clóvis R. S. Fonseca, Vanessa C. Pelícia, Fernando Ferreira, Jonatas S. Abrahão and Jane Megid

Viruses 2018, 10(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10020051 - 23 Jan 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3817

Abstract

The origin of Vaccinia virus (VACV) outbreaks in Brazil remains unknown, but since the isolation of VACV in Mus musculus mice during a zoonotic outbreak affecting cattle and milkers, peridomestic rodents have been suggested to be a link between cows and wild animals. [...] Read more.

The origin of Vaccinia virus (VACV) outbreaks in Brazil remains unknown, but since the isolation of VACV in Mus musculus mice during a zoonotic outbreak affecting cattle and milkers, peridomestic rodents have been suggested to be a link between cows and wild animals. Considering that experimentally infected mice eliminate viral particles in their feces, we investigated the presence of VACV in the feces and urine of wild rodents that were captured in the forest areas surrounding milking farms in the central west region of São Paulo State. For the first time, this work reports the detection of VACV by PCR in the feces of naturally infected Oligoryzomys flavescens, Oligoryzomys nigripes, and Sooretamys angouya, and in the urine of Oligorizomys flavescens, which raises important questions about the spread of VACV by rodent feces and its potential to induce clinical infections in cows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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12 pages, 790 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vaccinia Virus in Blood Samples of Humans, Domestic and Wild Mammals in Brazil

by Marina G. Peres, Thais S. Bacchiega, Camila M. Appolinário, Acácia F. Vicente, Mateus De Souza Ribeiro Mioni, Bruna L. D. Ribeiro, Clóvis R. S. Fonseca, Vanessa C. Pelícia, Fernando Ferreira, Graziele P. Oliveira, Jonatas S. Abrahão and Jane Megid

Viruses 2018, 10(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10010042 - 18 Jan 2018

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4490

Abstract

Outbreaks of Vaccinia virus (VACV) affecting cattle and humans have been reported in Brazil in the last 15 years, but the origin of outbreaks remains unknown. Although VACV DNA have been already detected in mice (Mus musculus), opossums (Didelphis albiventris [...] Read more.

Outbreaks of Vaccinia virus (VACV) affecting cattle and humans have been reported in Brazil in the last 15 years, but the origin of outbreaks remains unknown. Although VACV DNA have been already detected in mice (Mus musculus), opossums (Didelphis albiventris) and dogs during VACV zoonotic outbreaks, no transmission to cattle or humans from any of these were reported during Brazilian outbreaks. In this work, we assessed the PCR positivity to VACV in blood samples of cows and other domestic mammals, wild rodents and other wild mammals, and humans from areas with or without VACV infection reports. Our results show the detection of VACV DNA in blood samples of cows, horse and opossums, raising important questions about VACV spread. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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14 pages, 1221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

E3L and F1L Gene Functions Modulate the Protective Capacity of Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Immunization in Murine Model of Human Smallpox

by Asisa Volz, Sylvia Jany, Astrid Freudenstein, Markus Lantermann, Holger Ludwig and Gerd Sutter

Viruses 2018, 10(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10010021 - 4 Jan 2018

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5803

Abstract

The highly attenuated Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) lacks most of the known vaccinia virus (VACV) virulence and immune evasion genes. Today MVA can serve as a safety-tested next-generation smallpox vaccine. Yet, we still need to learn about regulatory gene functions preserved in [...] Read more.

The highly attenuated Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) lacks most of the known vaccinia virus (VACV) virulence and immune evasion genes. Today MVA can serve as a safety-tested next-generation smallpox vaccine. Yet, we still need to learn about regulatory gene functions preserved in the MVA genome, such as the apoptosis inhibitor genes F1L and E3L. Here, we tested MVA vaccine preparations on the basis of the deletion mutant viruses MVA-ΔF1L and MVA-ΔE3L for efficacy against ectromelia virus (ECTV) challenge infections in mice. In non-permissive human tissue culture the MVA deletion mutant viruses produced reduced levels of the VACV envelope antigen B5. Upon mousepox challenge at three weeks after vaccination, MVA-ΔF1L and MVA-ΔE3L exhibited reduced protective capacity in comparison to wildtype MVA. Surprisingly, however, all vaccines proved equally protective against a lethal ECTV infection at two days after vaccination. Accordingly, the deletion mutant MVA vaccines induced high levels of virus-specific CD8+ T cells previously shown to be essential for rapidly protective MVA vaccination. These results suggest that inactivation of the anti-apoptotic genes F1L or E3L modulates the protective capacity of MVA vaccination most likely through the induction of distinct orthopoxvirus specific immunity in the absence of these viral regulatory proteins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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5453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Model to Detect Autochthonous Group 1 and 2 Brazilian Vaccinia virus Coinfections: Development of a qPCR Tool for Diagnosis and Pathogenesis Studies

by Rafael Calixto, Graziele Oliveira, Maurício Lima, Ana Cláudia Andrade, Giliane De Souza Trindade, Danilo Bretas De Oliveira and Erna Geessien Kroon

Viruses 2018, 10(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10010015 - 30 Dec 2017

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4795

Abstract

Vaccinia virus (VACV) is the etiological agent of bovine vaccinia (BV), an emerging zoonosis that has been associated with economic losses and social effects. Despite increasing reports of BV outbreaks in Brazil, little is known about the biological interactions of Brazilian [...] Read more.

Vaccinia virus (VACV) is the etiological agent of bovine vaccinia (BV), an emerging zoonosis that has been associated with economic losses and social effects. Despite increasing reports of BV outbreaks in Brazil, little is known about the biological interactions of Brazilian VACV (VACV-BR) isolates during coinfections; furthermore, there are no tools for the diagnosis of these coinfections. In this study, a tool to co-detect two variants of VACV was developed to provide new information regarding the pathogenesis, virulence profile, and viral spread during coinfection with VACV-BR isolates. To test the quantitative polymerase chain reactions (qPCR) tool, groups of BALB/c mice were intranasally monoinfected with Pelotas virus 1—Group II (PV1-GII) and Pelotas virus 2—Group I (PV2-GI), or were coinfected with PV1-GII and PV2-GI. Clinical signs of the mice were evaluated and the viral load in lung and spleen were detected using simultaneous polymerase chain reactions (PCR) targeting the A56R (hemagglutinin) gene of VACV. The results showed that qPCR for the quantification of viral load in coinfection was efficient and highly sensitive. Coinfected mice presented more severe disease and a higher frequency of VACV detection in lung and spleen, when compared to monoinfected groups. This study is the first description of PV1 and PV2 pathogenicity during coinfection in mice, and provides a new method to detect VACV-BR coinfections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Cowpox Virus (CPXV) Infections of Bank Voles: Exceptional Clinical Resistance and Variable Reservoir Competence

by Annika Franke, Rainer G. Ulrich, Saskia Weber, Nikolaus Osterrieder, Markus Keller, Donata Hoffmann and Martin Beer

Viruses 2017, 9(12), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9120391 - 19 Dec 2017

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4806

Abstract

Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic virus and endemic in wild rodent populations in Eurasia. Serological surveys in Europe have reported high prevalence in different vole and mouse species. Here, we report on experimental CPXV infections of bank voles (Myodes glareolus) [...] Read more.

Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic virus and endemic in wild rodent populations in Eurasia. Serological surveys in Europe have reported high prevalence in different vole and mouse species. Here, we report on experimental CPXV infections of bank voles (Myodes glareolus) from different evolutionary lineages with a spectrum of CPXV strains. All bank voles, independently of lineage, sex and age, were resistant to clinical signs following CPXV inoculation, and no virus shedding was detected in nasal or buccal swabs. In-contact control animals became only rarely infected. However, depending on the CPXV strain used, inoculated animals seroconverted and viral DNA could be detected preferentially in the upper respiratory tract. The highest antibody titers and virus DNA loads in the lungs were detected after inoculation with two strains from Britain and Finland. We conclude from our experiments that the role of bank voles as an efficient and exclusive CPXV reservoir seems questionable, and that CPXV may be maintained in most regions by other hosts, including other vole species. Further investigations are needed to identify factors that allow and modulate CPXV maintenance in bank voles and other potential reservoirs, which may also influence spill-over infections to accidental hosts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

11233 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protection of Mice from Lethal Vaccinia Virus Infection by Vaccinia Virus Protein Subunits with a CpG Adjuvant

by Sarah Reeman, Amanda J. Gates, David J. Pulford, Art Krieg and David O. Ulaeto

Viruses 2017, 9(12), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9120378 - 9 Dec 2017

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6068

Abstract

Smallpox vaccination carries a high risk of adverse events in recipients with a variety of contra-indications for live vaccines. Although alternative non-replicating vaccines have been described in the form of replication-deficient vaccine viruses, DNA vaccines, and subunit vaccines, these are less efficacious than [...] Read more.

Smallpox vaccination carries a high risk of adverse events in recipients with a variety of contra-indications for live vaccines. Although alternative non-replicating vaccines have been described in the form of replication-deficient vaccine viruses, DNA vaccines, and subunit vaccines, these are less efficacious than replicating vaccines in animal models. DNA and subunit vaccines in particular have not been shown to give equivalent protection to the traditional replicating smallpox vaccine. We show here that combinations of the orthopoxvirus A27, A33, B5 and L1 proteins give differing levels of protection when administered in different combinations with different adjuvants. In particular, the combination of B5 and A27 proteins adjuvanted with CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) gives a level of protection in mice that is equivalent to the Lister traditional vaccine in a lethal vaccinia virus challenge model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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3688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Pathological and Virological Findings During Experimental Calpox Virus Infection of Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)

by Anne Schmitt, Li Lin Gan, Ahmed Abd El Wahed, Tingchuan Shi, Heinz Ellerbrok, Franz-Josef Kaup, Christiane Stahl-Hennig and Kerstin Mätz-Rensing

Viruses 2017, 9(12), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9120363 - 28 Nov 2017

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5757

Abstract

Experimental intranasal infection of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with calpox virus results in fatal disease. Route and dose used for viral inoculation of the test animals mimics the natural transmission of smallpox, thus representing a suitable model to study pathogenesis and to [...] Read more.

Experimental intranasal infection of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with calpox virus results in fatal disease. Route and dose used for viral inoculation of the test animals mimics the natural transmission of smallpox, thus representing a suitable model to study pathogenesis and to evaluate new vaccines against orthopoxvirus infection. However, the pathogenic mechanisms leading to death are still unclear. Therefore, our study aimed at investigating the kinetics of pathological alterations to clarify the pathogenesis in calpox virus infection. Following intranasal inoculation with two different viral doses, common marmosets were sacrificed on days 3, 5, 7, 10 and 12 post inoculation. Collected tissue was screened using histopathology, immunohistochemistry, transmission electron microscopy, and virological assays. Our data suggest that primary replication took place in nasal and bronchial epithelia followed by secondary replication in submandibular lymph nodes and spleen. Parallel to viremia at day 7, virus was detectable in many organs, mainly located in epithelial cells and macrophages, as well as in endothelial cells. Based on the onset of clinical signs, the histological and ultrastructural lesions and the immunohistochemical distribution pattern of the virus, the incubation period was defined to last 11 days, which resembles human smallpox. In conclusion, the data indicate that the calpox model is highly suitable for studying orthopoxvirus-induced disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological Investigations of Four Cowpox Virus Outbreaks in Alpaca Herds, Germany

by Almut Prkno, Donata Hoffmann, Daniela Goerigk, Matthias Kaiser, Anne Catherine Franscisca Van Maanen, Kathrin Jeske, Maria Jenckel, Florian Pfaff, Thomas W. Vahlenkamp, Martin Beer, Rainer G. Ulrich, Alexander Starke and Martin Pfeffer

Viruses 2017, 9(11), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9110344 - 18 Nov 2017

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7046

Abstract

Four cowpox virus (CPXV) outbreaks occurred in unrelated alpaca herds in Eastern Germany during 2012–2017. All incidents were initially noticed due to severe, generalized, and finally lethal CPXV infections, which were confirmed by testing of tissue and serum samples. As CPXV-infection has been [...] Read more.

Four cowpox virus (CPXV) outbreaks occurred in unrelated alpaca herds in Eastern Germany during 2012–2017. All incidents were initially noticed due to severe, generalized, and finally lethal CPXV infections, which were confirmed by testing of tissue and serum samples. As CPXV-infection has been described in South American camelids (SACs) only three times, all four herds were investigated to gain a deeper understanding of CPXV epidemiology in alpacas. The different herds were investigated twice, and various samples (serum, swab samples, and crusts of suspicious pox lesions, feces) were taken to identify additionally infected animals. Serum was used to detect CPXV-specific antibodies by performing an indirect immunofluorescence assay (iIFA); swab samples, crusts, and feces were used for detection of CPXV-specific DNA in a real-time PCR. In total, 28 out of 107 animals could be identified as affected by CPXV, by iIFA and/or PCR. Herd seroprevalence ranged from 16.1% to 81.2%. To investigate the potential source of infection, wild small mammals were trapped around all alpaca herds. In two herds, CPXV-specific antibodies were found in the local rodent population. In the third herd, CPXV could be isolated from a common vole (Microtus arvalis) found drowned in a water bucket used to water the alpacas. Full genome sequencing and comparison with the genome of a CPXV from an alpaca from the same herd reveal 99.997% identity, providing further evidence that the common vole is a reservoir host and infection source of CPXV. Only in the remaining fourth herd, none of the trapped rodents were found to be CPXV-infected. Rodents, as ubiquitous reservoir hosts, in combination with increasingly popular alpacas, as susceptible species, suggest an enhanced risk of future zoonotic infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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1332 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combined Proteomics/Genomics Approach Reveals Proteomic Changes of Mature Virions as a Novel Poxvirus Adaptation Mechanism

by Marica Grossegesse, Joerg Doellinger, Alona Tyshaieva, Lars Schaade and Andreas Nitsche

Viruses 2017, 9(11), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9110337 - 10 Nov 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5238

Abstract

DNA viruses, like poxviruses, possess a highly stable genome, suggesting that adaptation of virus particles to specific cell types is not restricted to genomic changes. Cowpox viruses are zoonotic poxviruses with an extraordinarily broad host range, demonstrating their adaptive potential in vivo. To [...] Read more.

DNA viruses, like poxviruses, possess a highly stable genome, suggesting that adaptation of virus particles to specific cell types is not restricted to genomic changes. Cowpox viruses are zoonotic poxviruses with an extraordinarily broad host range, demonstrating their adaptive potential in vivo. To elucidate adaptation mechanisms of poxviruses, we isolated cowpox virus particles from a rat and passaged them five times in a human and a rat cell line. Subsequently, we analyzed the proteome and genome of the non-passaged virions and each passage. While the overall viral genome sequence was stable during passaging, proteomics revealed multiple changes in the virion composition. Interestingly, an increased viral fitness in human cells was observed in the presence of increased immunomodulatory protein amounts. As the only minor variant with increasing frequency during passaging was located in a viral RNA polymerase subunit and, moreover, most minor variants were found in transcription-associated genes, protein amounts were presumably regulated at transcription level. This study is the first comparative proteome analysis of virus particles before and after cell culture propagation, revealing proteomic changes as a novel poxvirus adaptation mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Next-Generation Sequencing Approach Uncovers Viral Transcripts Incorporated in Poxvirus Virions

by Marica Grossegesse, Joerg Doellinger, Berit Haldemann, Lars Schaade and Andreas Nitsche

Viruses 2017, 9(10), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9100296 - 13 Oct 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5313

Abstract

Transcripts are known to be incorporated in particles of DNA viruses belonging to the families of Herpesviridae and Mimiviridae, but the presence of transcripts in other DNA viruses, such as poxviruses, has not been analyzed yet. Therefore, we first established a next-generation-sequencing [...] Read more.

Transcripts are known to be incorporated in particles of DNA viruses belonging to the families of Herpesviridae and Mimiviridae, but the presence of transcripts in other DNA viruses, such as poxviruses, has not been analyzed yet. Therefore, we first established a next-generation-sequencing (NGS)-based protocol, enabling the unbiased identification of transcripts in virus particles. Subsequently, we applied our protocol to analyze RNA in an emerging zoonotic member of the Poxviridae family, namely Cowpox virus. Our results revealed the incorporation of 19 viral transcripts, while host identifications were restricted to ribosomal and mitochondrial RNA. Most viral transcripts had an unknown and immunomodulatory function, suggesting that transcript incorporation may be beneficial for poxvirus immune evasion. Notably, the most abundant transcript originated from the D5L/I1R gene that encodes a viral inhibitor of the host cytoplasmic DNA sensing machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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4455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Monkeypox Virus Prevalence in Small Mammals at the Human–Animal Interface in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

by Jeffrey B. Doty, Jean M. Malekani, Lem’s N. Kalemba, William T. Stanley, Benjamin P. Monroe, Yoshinori U. Nakazawa, Matthew R. Mauldin, Trésor L. Bakambana, Tobit Liyandja Dja Liyandja, Zachary H. Braden, Ryan M. Wallace, Divin V. Malekani, Andrea M. McCollum, Nadia Gallardo-Romero, Ashley Kondas, A. Townsend Peterson, Jorge E. Osorio, Tonie E. Rocke, Kevin L. Karem, Ginny L. Emerson and Darin S. Carroll Show full author list Hide full author list

Viruses 2017, 9(10), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9100283 - 3 Oct 2017

Cited by 135 | Viewed by 12260

Abstract

During 2012, 2013 and 2015, we collected small mammals within 25 km of the town of Boende in Tshuapa Province, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The prevalence of monkeypox virus (MPXV) in this area is unknown; however, cases of human infection were [...] Read more.

During 2012, 2013 and 2015, we collected small mammals within 25 km of the town of Boende in Tshuapa Province, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The prevalence of monkeypox virus (MPXV) in this area is unknown; however, cases of human infection were previously confirmed near these collection sites. Samples were collected from 353 mammals (rodents, shrews, pangolins, elephant shrews, a potamogale, and a hyrax). Some rodents and shrews were captured from houses where human monkeypox cases have recently been identified, but most were trapped in forests and agricultural areas near villages. Real-time PCR and ELISA were used to assess evidence of MPXV infection and other Orthopoxvirus (OPXV) infections in these small mammals. Seven (2.0%) of these animal samples were found to be anti-orthopoxvirus immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody positive (six rodents: two Funisciurus spp.; one Graphiurus lorraineus; one Cricetomys emini; one Heliosciurus sp.; one Oenomys hypoxanthus, and one elephant shrew Petrodromus tetradactylus); no individuals were found positive in PCR-based assays. These results suggest that a variety of animals can be infected with OPXVs, and that epidemiology studies and educational campaigns should focus on animals that people are regularly contacting, including larger rodents used as protein sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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1902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Cross-Sectional Serosurvey of Anti-Orthopoxvirus Antibodies in Central and Western Africa

by Siv Aina J. Leendertz, Daniel Stern, Dennis Theophil, Etile Anoh, Arsène Mossoun, Grit Schubert, Lidewij Wiersma, Chantal Akoua-Koffi, Emmanuel Couacy-Hymann, Jean-Jacques Muyembe-Tamfum, Stomy Karhemere, Maude Pauly, Livia Schrick, Fabian H. Leendertz and Andreas Nitsche

Viruses 2017, 9(10), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9100278 - 29 Sep 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4799

Abstract

Since the eradication of smallpox and the subsequent discontinuation of the worldwide smallpox vaccination program, other Orthopoxviruses beside Variola virus have been increasingly representing a risk to human health. To investigate the extent of natural contact with Orthopoxviruses and possible demographic risk factors [...] Read more.

Since the eradication of smallpox and the subsequent discontinuation of the worldwide smallpox vaccination program, other Orthopoxviruses beside Variola virus have been increasingly representing a risk to human health. To investigate the extent of natural contact with Orthopoxviruses and possible demographic risk factors for such an exposure, we performed a cross-sectional serosurvey of anti-Orthopoxvirus IgG antibodies in West and Central Africa. To this end, people living in forest regions in Côte d’Ivoire (CIV, n = 737) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (COD, n = 267) were assigned into groups according to their likely smallpox vaccination status. The overall prevalence of anti-Orthopoxvirus antibodies was 51% in CIV and 60% in COD. High rates of seropositivity among the vaccinated part of the population (80% in CIV; 96% COD) indicated a long-lasting post vaccination immune response. In non-vaccinated participants, seroprevalences of 19% (CIV) and 26% (COD) indicated regular contact with Orthopoxviruses. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that the antibody level in the vaccinated part of the population was higher in COD than in CIV, increased with age and was slightly higher in females than males. In the unvaccinated part of the population none of these factors influenced antibody level significantly. In conclusion, our results confirm expectedly high anti-Orthopoxvirus seroprevalences in previously smallpox-vaccinated people living in CIV and the COD but more unexpectedly imply regular contact with Orthopoxviruses both in Western and Central Africa, even in the absence of recognized outbreaks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessArticle

Re-Assembly and Analysis of an Ancient Variola Virus Genome

by Chad Smithson, Jacob Imbery and Chris Upton

Viruses 2017, 9(9), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9090253 - 8 Sep 2017

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6940

Abstract

We report a major improvement to the assembly of published short read sequencing data from an ancient variola virus (VARV) genome by the removal of contig-capping sequencing tags and manual searches for gap-spanning reads. The new assembly, together with camelpox and taterapox genomes, [...] Read more.

We report a major improvement to the assembly of published short read sequencing data from an ancient variola virus (VARV) genome by the removal of contig-capping sequencing tags and manual searches for gap-spanning reads. The new assembly, together with camelpox and taterapox genomes, permitted new dates to be calculated for the last common ancestor of all VARV genomes. The analysis of recently sequenced VARV-like cowpox virus genomes showed that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and amino acid changes in the vaccinia virus (VACV)-Cop-O1L ortholog, predicted to be associated with VARV host specificity and virulence, were introduced into the lineage before the divergence of these viruses. A comparison of the ancient and modern VARV genome sequences also revealed a measurable drift towards adenine + thymine (A + T) richness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Taterapox Virus in Small Animals

by Scott Parker, Ryan Crump, Hollyce Hartzler and R. Mark Buller

Viruses 2017, 9(8), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9080203 - 1 Aug 2017

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6594

Abstract

Taterapox virus (TATV), which was isolated from an African gerbil (Tatera kempi) in 1975, is the most closely related virus to variola; however, only the original report has examined its virology. We have evaluated the tropism of TATV in vivo in [...] Read more.

Taterapox virus (TATV), which was isolated from an African gerbil (Tatera kempi) in 1975, is the most closely related virus to variola; however, only the original report has examined its virology. We have evaluated the tropism of TATV in vivo in small animals. We found that TATV does not infect Graphiurus kelleni, a species of African dormouse, but does induce seroconversion in the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) and in mice; however, in wild-type mice and gerbils, the virus produces an unapparent infection. Following intranasal and footpad inoculations with 1 × 10⁶ plaque forming units (PFU) of TATV, immunocompromised stat1^−/− mice showed signs of disease but did not die; however, SCID mice were susceptible to intranasal and footpad infections with 100% mortality observed by Day 35 and Day 54, respectively. We show that death is unlikely to be a result of the virus mutating to have increased virulence and that SCID mice are capable of transmitting TATV to C57BL/6 and C57BL/6 stat1^−/− animals; however, transmission did not occur from TATV inoculated wild-type or stat1^−/− mice. Comparisons with ectromelia (the etiological agent of mousepox) suggest that TATV behaves differently both at the site of inoculation and in the immune response that it triggers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Two Historic Smallpox Specimens from a Czech Museum

by Petr Pajer, Jiri Dresler, Hana Kabíckova, Libor Písa, Pavel Aganov, Karel Fucik, Daniel Elleder, Tomas Hron, Vitezslav Kuzelka, Petr Velemínsky, Jana Klimentova, Alena Fucikova, Jaroslav Pejchal, Rita Hrabakova, Vladimir Benes, Tobias Rausch, Pavel Dundr, Alexander Pilin, Radomir Cabala, Martin Hubalek, Jan Stríbrny, Markus H. Antwerpen and Hermann Meyer Show full author list Hide full author list

Viruses 2017, 9(8), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9080200 - 27 Jul 2017

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8561

Abstract

Although smallpox has been known for centuries, the oldest available variola virus strains were isolated in the early 1940s. At that time, large regions of the world were already smallpox-free. Therefore, genetic information of these strains can represent only the very last fraction [...] Read more.

Although smallpox has been known for centuries, the oldest available variola virus strains were isolated in the early 1940s. At that time, large regions of the world were already smallpox-free. Therefore, genetic information of these strains can represent only the very last fraction of a long evolutionary process. Based on the genomes of 48 strains, two clades are differentiated: Clade 1 includes variants of variola major, and clade 2 includes West African and variola minor (Alastrim) strains. Recently, the genome of an almost 400-year-old Lithuanian mummy was determined, which fell basal to all currently sequenced strains of variola virus on phylogenetic trees. Here, we determined two complete variola virus genomes from human tissues kept in a museum in Prague dating back 60 and 160 years, respectively. Moreover, mass spectrometry-based proteomic, chemical, and microscopic examinations were performed. The 60-year-old specimen was most likely an importation from India, a country with endemic smallpox at that time. The genome of the 160-year-old specimen is related to clade 2 West African and variola minor strains. This sequence likely represents a new endemic European variant of variola virus circulating in the midst of the 19th century in Europe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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2289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Classification of Cowpox Viruses into Several Distinct Clades and Identification of a Novel Lineage

by Annika Franke, Florian Pfaff, Maria Jenckel, Bernd Hoffmann, Dirk Höper, Markus Antwerpen, Hermann Meyer, Martin Beer and Donata Hoffmann

Viruses 2017, 9(6), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9060142 - 10 Jun 2017

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 9935

Abstract

Cowpox virus (CPXV) was considered as uniform species within the genus Orthopoxvirus (OPV). Previous phylogenetic analysis indicated that CPXV is polyphyletic and isolates may cluster into different clades with two of these clades showing genetic similarities to either variola (VARV) or vaccinia viruses [...] Read more.

Cowpox virus (CPXV) was considered as uniform species within the genus Orthopoxvirus (OPV). Previous phylogenetic analysis indicated that CPXV is polyphyletic and isolates may cluster into different clades with two of these clades showing genetic similarities to either variola (VARV) or vaccinia viruses (VACV). Further analyses were initiated to assess both the genetic diversity and the evolutionary background of circulating CPXVs. Here we report the full-length sequences of 20 CPXV strains isolated from different animal species and humans in Germany. A phylogenetic analysis of altogether 83 full-length OPV genomes confirmed the polyphyletic character of the species CPXV and suggested at least four different clades. The German isolates from this study mainly clustered into two CPXV-like clades, and VARV- and VACV-like strains were not observed. A single strain, isolated from a cotton-top tamarin, clustered distantly from all other CPXVs and might represent a novel and unique evolutionary lineage. The classification of CPXV strains into clades roughly followed their geographic origin, with the highest clade diversity so far observed for Germany. Furthermore, we found evidence for recombination between OPV clades without significant disruption of the observed clustering. In conclusion, this analysis markedly expands the number of available CPXV full-length sequences and confirms the co-circulation of several CPXV clades in Germany, and provides the first data about a new evolutionary CPXV lineage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessArticle

Cowpox virus: What’s in a Name?

by Matthew R. Mauldin, Markus Antwerpen, Ginny L. Emerson, Yu Li, Gudrun Zoeller, Darin S. Carroll and Hermann Meyer

Viruses 2017, 9(5), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9050101 - 9 May 2017

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 9756

Abstract

Traditionally, virus taxonomy relied on phenotypic properties; however, a sequence-based virus taxonomy has become essential since the recent requirement of a species to exhibit monophyly. The species Cowpox virus has failed to meet this requirement, necessitating a reexamination of this species. Here, we [...] Read more.

Traditionally, virus taxonomy relied on phenotypic properties; however, a sequence-based virus taxonomy has become essential since the recent requirement of a species to exhibit monophyly. The species Cowpox virus has failed to meet this requirement, necessitating a reexamination of this species. Here, we report the genomic sequences of nine Cowpox viruses and, by combining them with the available data of 37 additional genomes, confirm polyphyly of Cowpox viruses and find statistical support based on genetic data for more than a dozen species. These results are discussed in light of the current International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses species definition, as well as immediate and future implications for poxvirus taxonomic classification schemes. Data support the recognition of five monophyletic clades of Cowpox viruses as valid species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Review

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29 pages, 13983 KiB

Open AccessReview

Rapid Viral Diagnosis of Orthopoxviruses by Electron Microscopy: Optional or a Must?

by Hans R. Gelderblom and Dick Madeley

Viruses 2018, 10(4), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10040142 - 22 Mar 2018

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 13567

Abstract

Diagnostic electron microscopy (DEM) was an essential component of viral diagnosis until the development of highly sensitive nucleic acid amplification techniques (NAT). The simple negative staining technique of DEM was applied widely to smallpox diagnosis until the world-wide eradication of the human-specific pathogen [...] Read more.

Diagnostic electron microscopy (DEM) was an essential component of viral diagnosis until the development of highly sensitive nucleic acid amplification techniques (NAT). The simple negative staining technique of DEM was applied widely to smallpox diagnosis until the world-wide eradication of the human-specific pathogen in 1980. Since then, the threat of smallpox re-emerging through laboratory escape, molecular manipulation, synthetic biology or bioterrorism has not totally disappeared and would be a major problem in an unvaccinated population. Other animal poxviruses may also emerge as human pathogens. With its rapid results (only a few minutes after arrival of the specimen), no requirement for specific reagents and its “open view”, DEM remains an important component of virus diagnosis, particularly because it can easily and reliably distinguish smallpox virus or any other member of the orthopoxvirus (OPV) genus from parapoxviruses (PPV) and the far more common and less serious herpesviruses (herpes simplex and varicella zoster). Preparation, enrichment, examination, internal standards and suitable organisations are discussed to make clear its continuing value as a diagnostic technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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13 pages, 2611 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bovine Vaccinia: Insights into the Disease in Cattle

by Ana Carolina Diniz Matos, Izabelle Silva Rehfeld, Maria Isabel Maldonado Coelho Guedes and Zélia Inês Portela Lobato

Viruses 2018, 10(3), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10030120 - 9 Mar 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7238

Abstract

Bovine vaccinia (BV), caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV), is a zoonosis characterized by exanthematous lesions in the teats of dairy cows and the hands of milkers and is an important public health issue. Severe VACV-induced lesions in the teats and udder of cows [...] Read more.

Bovine vaccinia (BV), caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV), is a zoonosis characterized by exanthematous lesions in the teats of dairy cows and the hands of milkers and is an important public health issue. Severe VACV-induced lesions in the teats and udder of cows and buffaloes could lead to mastitis and other secondary infections, thereby reducing productivity and resulting in economic losses to the dairy industry. In Brazil, BV re-emerged in the late 1990s and is now endemic in most of the Brazilian territory. In the last 15 years, much effort has been made to know more about this disease and its epidemiology, etiologic agents, and interactions with the host and the environment. In this review, we describe the known dynamics of VACV infection in cattle and the viral shedding routes, as well as the relevance of BV for animal and public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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33 pages, 358 KiB

Open AccessReview

Modulating Vaccinia Virus Immunomodulators to Improve Immunological Memory

by Jonas D. Albarnaz, Alice A. Torres and Geoffrey L. Smith

Viruses 2018, 10(3), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10030101 - 28 Feb 2018

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 5962

Abstract

The increasing frequency of monkeypox virus infections, new outbreaks of other zoonotic orthopoxviruses and concern about the re-emergence of smallpox have prompted research into developing antiviral drugs and better vaccines against these viruses. This article considers the genetic engineering of vaccinia virus (VACV) [...] Read more.

The increasing frequency of monkeypox virus infections, new outbreaks of other zoonotic orthopoxviruses and concern about the re-emergence of smallpox have prompted research into developing antiviral drugs and better vaccines against these viruses. This article considers the genetic engineering of vaccinia virus (VACV) to enhance vaccine immunogenicity and safety. The virulence, immunogenicity and protective efficacy of VACV strains engineered to lack specific immunomodulatory or host range proteins are described. The ultimate goal is to develop safer and more immunogenic VACV vaccines that induce long-lasting immunological memory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessReview

The French Armed Forces Virology Unit: A Chronological Record of Ongoing Research on Orthopoxvirus

by Déborah Delaune, Frédéric Iseni, Audrey Ferrier-Rembert, Christophe N. Peyrefitte and Olivier Ferraris

Viruses 2018, 10(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/v10010003 - 23 Dec 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5843

Abstract

Since the official declaration of smallpox eradication in 1980, the general population vaccination has ceased worldwide. Therefore, people under 40 year old are generally not vaccinated against smallpox and have no cross protection against orthopoxvirus infections. This naïve population may be exposed to [...] Read more.

Since the official declaration of smallpox eradication in 1980, the general population vaccination has ceased worldwide. Therefore, people under 40 year old are generally not vaccinated against smallpox and have no cross protection against orthopoxvirus infections. This naïve population may be exposed to natural or intentional orthopoxvirus emergences. The virology unit of the Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (France) has developed research programs on orthopoxviruses since 2000. Its missions were conceived to improve the diagnosis capabilities, to foster vaccine development, and to develop antivirals targeting specific viral proteins. The role of the virology unit was asserted in 2012 when the responsibility of the National Reference Center for the Orthopoxviruses was given to the unit. This article presents the evolution of the unit activity since 2000, and the past and current research focusing on orthopoxviruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessReview

Improving the Care and Treatment of Monkeypox Patients in Low-Resource Settings: Applying Evidence from Contemporary Biomedical and Smallpox Biodefense Research

by Mary G. Reynolds, Andrea M. McCollum, Beatrice Nguete, Robert Shongo Lushima and Brett W. Petersen

Viruses 2017, 9(12), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9120380 - 12 Dec 2017

Cited by 160 | Viewed by 19313

Abstract

Monkeypox is a smallpox-like illness that can be accompanied by a range of significant medical complications. To date there are no standard or optimized guidelines for the clinical management of monkeypox (MPX) patients, particularly in low-resource settings. Consequently, patients can experience protracted illness [...] Read more.

Monkeypox is a smallpox-like illness that can be accompanied by a range of significant medical complications. To date there are no standard or optimized guidelines for the clinical management of monkeypox (MPX) patients, particularly in low-resource settings. Consequently, patients can experience protracted illness and poor outcomes. Improving care necessitates developing a better understanding of the range of clinical manifestations—including complications and sequelae—as well as of features of illness that may be predictive of illness severity and poor outcomes. Experimental and natural infection of non-human primates with monkeypox virus can inform the approach to improving patient care, and may suggest options for pharmaceutical intervention. These studies have traditionally been performed to address the threat of smallpox bioterrorism and were designed with the intent of using MPX as a disease surrogate for smallpox. In many cases this necessitated employing high-dose, inhalational or intravenous challenge to recapitulate the severe manifestations of illness seen with smallpox. Overall, these data—and data from biomedical research involving burns, superficial wounds, herpes, eczema vaccinatum, and so forth—suggest that MPX patients could benefit from clinical support to mitigate the consequences of compromised skin and mucosa. This should include prevention and treatment of secondary bacterial infections (and other complications), ensuring adequate hydration and nutrition, and protecting vulnerable anatomical locations such as the eyes and genitals. A standard of care that considers these factors should be developed and assessed in different settings, using clinical metrics specific for MPX alongside consideration of antiviral therapies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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2773 KiB

Open AccessReview

Vaccinia Virus Natural Infections in Brazil: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

by Jaqueline Silva de Oliveira, Poliana De Oliveira Figueiredo, Galileu Barbosa Costa, Felipe Lopes de Assis, Betânia Paiva Drumond, Flávio Guimarães Da Fonseca, Maurício Lacerda Nogueira, Erna Geessien Kroon and Giliane De Souza Trindade

Viruses 2017, 9(11), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9110340 - 15 Nov 2017

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8913

Abstract

The orthopoxviruses (OPV) comprise several emerging viruses with great importance to human and veterinary medicine, including vaccinia virus (VACV), which causes outbreaks of bovine vaccinia (BV) in South America. Historically, VACV is the most comprehensively studied virus, however, its origin and natural hosts [...] Read more.

The orthopoxviruses (OPV) comprise several emerging viruses with great importance to human and veterinary medicine, including vaccinia virus (VACV), which causes outbreaks of bovine vaccinia (BV) in South America. Historically, VACV is the most comprehensively studied virus, however, its origin and natural hosts remain unknown. VACV was the primary component of the smallpox vaccine, largely used during the smallpox eradication campaign. After smallpox was declared eradicated, the vaccination that conferred immunity to OPV was discontinued, favoring a new contingent of susceptible individuals to OPV. VACV infections occur naturally after direct contact with infected dairy cattle, in recently vaccinated individuals, or through alternative routes of exposure. In Brazil, VACV outbreaks are frequently reported in rural areas, affecting mainly farm animals and humans. Recent studies have shown the role of wildlife in the VACV transmission chain, exploring the role of wild rodents as reservoirs that facilitate VACV spread throughout rural areas. Furthermore, VACV circulation in urban environments and the significance of this with respect to public health, have also been explored. In this review, we discuss the history, epidemiological, ecological and clinical aspects of natural VACV infections in Brazil, also highlighting alternative routes of VACV transmission, the factors involved in susceptibility to infection, and the natural history of the disease in humans and animals, and the potential for dissemination to urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessReview

Poxvirus Host Range Genes and Virus–Host Spectrum: A Critical Review

by Graziele Pereira Oliveira, Rodrigo Araújo Lima Rodrigues, Maurício Teixeira Lima, Betânia Paiva Drumond and Jônatas Santos Abrahão

Viruses 2017, 9(11), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9110331 - 7 Nov 2017

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 10638

Abstract

The Poxviridae family is comprised of double-stranded DNA viruses belonging to nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV). Among the NCLDV, poxviruses exhibit the widest known host range, which is likely observed because this viral family has been more heavily investigated. However, relative to each [...] Read more.

The Poxviridae family is comprised of double-stranded DNA viruses belonging to nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV). Among the NCLDV, poxviruses exhibit the widest known host range, which is likely observed because this viral family has been more heavily investigated. However, relative to each member of the Poxviridae family, the spectrum of the host is variable, where certain viruses can infect a large range of hosts, while others are restricted to only one host species. It has been suggested that the variability in host spectrum among poxviruses is linked with the presence or absence of some host range genes. Would it be possible to extrapolate the restriction of viral replication in a specific cell lineage to an animal, a far more complex organism? In this study, we compare and discuss the relationship between the host range of poxvirus species and the abundance/diversity of host range genes. We analyzed the sequences of 38 previously identified and putative homologs of poxvirus host range genes, and updated these data with deposited sequences of new poxvirus genomes. Overall, the term host range genes might not be the most appropriate for these genes, since no correlation between them and the viruses’ host spectrum was observed, and a change in nomenclature should be considered. Finally, we analyzed the evolutionary history of these genes, and reaffirmed the occurrence of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) for certain elements, as previously suggested. Considering the data presented in this study, it is not possible to associate the diversity of host range factors with the amount of hosts of known poxviruses, and this traditional nomenclature creates misunderstandings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessReview

Hazard Characterization of Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Vector: What Are the Knowledge Gaps?

by Malachy I. Okeke, Arinze S. Okoli, Diana Diaz, Collins Offor, Taiwo G. Oludotun, Morten Tryland, Thomas Bøhn and Ugo Moens

Viruses 2017, 9(11), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9110318 - 29 Oct 2017

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8988

Abstract

Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is the vector of choice for human and veterinary applications due to its strong safety profile and immunogenicity in vivo. The use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines against human and animal diseases must comply with regulatory requirements as [...] Read more.

Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is the vector of choice for human and veterinary applications due to its strong safety profile and immunogenicity in vivo. The use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines against human and animal diseases must comply with regulatory requirements as they pertain to environmental risk assessment, particularly the characterization of potential adverse effects to humans, animals and the environment. MVA and recombinant MVA are widely believed to pose low or negligible risk to ecosystem health. However, key aspects of MVA biology require further research in order to provide data needed to evaluate the potential risks that may occur due to the use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines. The purpose of this paper is to identify knowledge gaps in the biology of MVA and recombinant MVA that are of relevance to its hazard characterization and discuss ongoing and future experiments aimed at providing data necessary to fill in the knowledge gaps. In addition, we presented arguments for the inclusion of uncertainty analysis and experimental investigation of verifiable worst-case scenarios in the environmental risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA. These will contribute to improved risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA vaccines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Other

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2534 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Two Distinct Clinical Courses of Human Cowpox, Germany, 2015

by Ines Eder, Patrick Vollmar, Martin Pfeffer, Philipp Naether, Arne Christian Rodloff and Hermann Meyer

Viruses 2017, 9(12), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9120375 - 7 Dec 2017

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 14048

Abstract

Here we present two cases of human infection with cowpox virus with distinct clinical courses. A series of clinical photographs documents lesion progression over time. In the first case—an unvaccinated young veterinary assistant—a pustule was treated locally with cortisone. The lesion turned into [...] Read more.

Here we present two cases of human infection with cowpox virus with distinct clinical courses. A series of clinical photographs documents lesion progression over time. In the first case—an unvaccinated young veterinary assistant—a pustule was treated locally with cortisone. The lesion turned into a large ulcer accompanied by severe lymphadenitis. Based on her close contact to a sick stray cat, infection with cowpox virus was assumed and confirmed by virus isolation, PCR, and serology. The clinical course took up to eleven months until healing of the wound was complete. Transmission of cowpox virus from the cat was likely because a skin swab was PCR-positive and the cat had a high titer of anti-orthopoxvirus antibodies. In contrast, a rather mild clinical course of cowpox was confirmed in a 49-year-old male farmer vaccinated against smallpox. Only a small eschar developed, and wound closure was complete after 6 weeks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessPerspective

The Role of Brincidofovir in Preparation for a Potential Smallpox Outbreak

by Scott A. Foster, Scott Parker and Randall Lanier

Viruses 2017, 9(11), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9110320 - 30 Oct 2017

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6286

Abstract

Smallpox (variola) virus is considered a Category A bioterrorism agent due to its ability to spread rapidly and the high morbidity and mortality rates associated with infection. Current recommendations recognize the importance of oral antivirals and call for having at least two smallpox [...] Read more.

Smallpox (variola) virus is considered a Category A bioterrorism agent due to its ability to spread rapidly and the high morbidity and mortality rates associated with infection. Current recommendations recognize the importance of oral antivirals and call for having at least two smallpox antivirals with different mechanisms of action available in the event of a smallpox outbreak. Multiple antivirals are recommended due in large part to the propensity of viruses to become resistant to antiviral therapy, especially monotherapy. Advances in synthetic biology heighten concerns that a bioterror attack with variola would utilize engineered resistance to antivirals and potentially vaccines. Brincidofovir, an oral antiviral in late stage development, has proven effective against orthopoxviruses in vitro and in vivo, has a different mechanism of action from tecovirimat (the only oral smallpox antiviral currently in the US Strategic National Stockpile), and has a resistance profile that reduces concerns in the scenario of a bioterror attack using genetically engineered smallpox. Given the devastating potential of smallpox as a bioweapon, preparation of a multi-pronged defense that accounts for the most obvious bioengineering possibilities is strategically imperative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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Open AccessPerspective

Are We Prepared in Case of a Possible Smallpox-Like Disease Emergence?

by Victoria A. Olson and Sergei N. Shchelkunov

Viruses 2017, 9(9), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/v9090242 - 27 Aug 2017

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8097

Abstract

Smallpox was the first human disease to be eradicated, through a concerted vaccination campaign led by the World Health Organization. Since its eradication, routine vaccination against smallpox has ceased, leaving the world population susceptible to disease caused by orthopoxviruses. In recent decades, reports [...] Read more.

Smallpox was the first human disease to be eradicated, through a concerted vaccination campaign led by the World Health Organization. Since its eradication, routine vaccination against smallpox has ceased, leaving the world population susceptible to disease caused by orthopoxviruses. In recent decades, reports of human disease from zoonotic orthopoxviruses have increased. Furthermore, multiple reports of newly identified poxviruses capable of causing human disease have occurred. These facts raise concerns regarding both the opportunity for these zoonotic orthopoxviruses to evolve and become a more severe public health issue, as well as the risk of Variola virus (the causative agent of smallpox) to be utilized as a bioterrorist weapon. The eradication of smallpox occurred prior to the development of the majority of modern virological and molecular biological techniques. Therefore, there is a considerable amount that is not understood regarding how this solely human pathogen interacts with its host. This paper briefly recounts the history and current status of diagnostic tools, vaccines, and anti-viral therapeutics for treatment of smallpox disease. The authors discuss the importance of further research to prepare the global community should a smallpox-like virus emerge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smallpox and Emerging Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses: What Is Coming Next?)

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